One of the most influential explanations comes from historian Roger Griffin’s concept of “palingenetic ultranationalism.” The word palingenesis derives from the Greek words palin (”again”) and genesis (”birth”), meaning rebirth or regeneration. Griffin argues that the defining myth of fascism is the promise of national rebirth after a period of perceived decline. Fascist movements typically emerge by convincing citizens that their nation has fallen into decadence - a state of moral, cultural, political, or social deterioration - and that only radical national renewal can restore so-called greatness.

Economic recessions, political corruption, demographic change, technological disruption, military defeat, or social fragmentation often create widespread anxiety. When democratic institutions appear incapable of addressing these problems, authoritarian movements present themselves as decisive alternatives, promise dramatic transformation and immediate solutions. The irony is the people in charge are the ones causing these problems and benefitting from them.

See my post on “disaster capitalism” (Naomi Klein): https://vm.tiktok.com/ZNRvvJ9jM/

Cultural anxieties frequently amplify this process. Concerns about immigration, supposed changing social norms, globalisation, economic insecurity, or perceived loss of national identity can be transformed into narratives of collective decline. These narratives often divide society into “true” members of the nation and alleged internal and external enemies who are blamed for national problems. Such scapegoating allows complex structural issues to be explained through simple emotional stories.

However, not all citizens respond to these narratives in the same way. Some individuals recognise historical patterns and identify similarities between contemporary movements and previous authoritarian regimes. Unbiased and verified historical education, civic literacy, exposure to diverse perspectives, and strong critical thinking skills often help individuals detect recurring tactics; bigotry acceleration, scapegoating, austerity, concentration of power, and promises of national salvation. Blame and punishment is put on the public when it’s the shape-shifting elites having fun gambling our money, and causing excessive destruction (in all senses of the word, not for moral/ideological reasons but because of hedonism), in areas of the world we’re too busy or apathetic to deem important.

Others struggle to recognise these patterns. Psychological research suggests that people often rely on cognitive shortcuts, group identities, and emotional reasoning when interpreting political events. Individuals with rigid ideological commitments may reject information that threatens their worldview no matter how true it is. Propaganda can further obscure historical parallels by presenting old ideas as entirely new solutions. When citizens lack access to accurate information or are exposed only to highly partisan narratives, recognising recurring political patterns becomes more difficult. The concept of “double think” from Orwell’s 1984 plays a part here too. The masses are flooded with so much information consisting of linguistically constructed half-truths that they simultaneously believe in contradicting rationalities, and become so overwhelmed that they give up seeking what’s real, or at least the closest thing to reality. Our busy schedules make research sessions hard to pencil in.

Recognition alone, however, does not guarantee resistance. Many people who understand historical dangers may still support or tolerate authoritarian movements. Fear of economic collapse, social disorder, violence, or political instability can persuade citizens that extraordinary measures are necessary. Some individuals calculate that supporting authoritarian policies may protect their economic interests, social status, or personal safety. Others may fear reprisal - retaliation, punishment, or social exclusion - for openly opposing powerful political movements. Like an abusive relationship.

Grievance politics often reinforces these dynamics. It refers to the mobilisation of resentment and perceived injustice into political action. Rather than addressing structural causes of social problems, political actors redirect public frustration toward specific (often marginalised) groups. This strategy can create powerful emotional bonds among supporters while deflecting attention from institutional failures or elite misconduct. In such environments, attacking scapegoated groups feels easier than confronting authoritative powers.

“Pathocracy” (Andrzej Łobaczewski) describes a political system in which individuals with severe personality disorders or psychopathic traits disproportionately occupy positions of power. Although the concept remains controversial and is not universally accepted within political science, it argues that such leaders can manipulate fear and division to maintain control. Whether or not one accepts the theory fully, history demonstrates that charismatic leaders can exploit public anxieties and weaken democratic safeguards.

Furthermore, the phenomenon sometimes described as “suicidal empathy” (Gad Saad) also appears in modern political discourse. Advocates of this idea claim that excessive compassion toward marginalised groups and outsiders threatens societal survival. This rhetoric reframes empathy as weakness and encourages exclusionary politics. In practice, such narratives can make authoritarian policies appear morally justified by presenting them as necessary acts of self-preservation rather than exercises of immoral and unethical domination. To counteract this sentiment, “critical empathy” (Andrea Lobb) combines compassion with analytical reasoning. It doesn’t require abandoning judgment but encourages citizens to understand the experiences of others while remaining attentive to evidence, democratic principles, and long-term consequences. It’s vital to prioritise issues especially since political discourse tends to make our smallest concerns seem like the biggest problems to delay progress.

Economic narratives further complicate political behaviour. Many working-class and low-income citizens defend wealthy elites (and even their blatant lies!) despite any conflicts of interest. It ironically seems that the aforementioned self-preservation can be gambled and put on hold if it means a supposedly inevitable sense of glory and prestige is rewarded later on. This can be attributed to “anticipatory socialisation” (Robert K. Merton). People may support systems that favour the wealthy because they imagine themselves eventually joining that group, adopting their values and behaviours even before membership. Media portrayals of billionaires as innovators, entrepreneurs, and self-made success stories reinforce this perception, even when significant wealth originates through inheritance, monopolistic advantages, or political influence. A militarised corporate culture of cut-throat brutality needed to maintain their positions, something we seem to admire and ready to join despite meritocracy mostly being a mirage.

See my post on how being an indecent person isn’t just “human nature”: https://vm.tiktok.com/ZNRvvmF5u/

The persistence of authoritarian cycles also raises questions about institutional design. Most modern democracies possess formal checks and balances to distribute authority among multiple institutions so that no single branch can accumulate unlimited power. Yet corruption and abuses of power still occur. This apparent contradiction exists because institutions function effectively only when supported by political norms, transparency, independent oversight, and public participation. An independent institution is one that operates free from direct political control, allowing it to monitor government actions impartially. Courts, anti-corruption agencies, auditors, and central banks are some examples. When these institutions are weakened through political interference, their ability to enforce accountability diminishes.

Many societies have attempted to strengthen democratic resilience through citizen assemblies and grassroots civic engagement (see list of links at the end). Their purpose is often to reduce polarisation and encourage evidence-based decision-making. Cross-party agreements represent another mechanism for promoting long-term stability. When major political parties agree on foundational policies, certain issues become less vulnerable to reversal after elections. This continuity allows governments to pursue long-term objectives rather than constantly shifting direction. However, excessive consensus can reduce democratic competition and public debate and so the challenge lies in balancing stability with accountability.

Many pre-colonial Indigenous societies developed governance mechanisms that sought to prevent corruption through communal accountability rather than formal bureaucratic structures. The Haudenosaunee Confederacy employed consensus-building systems that distributed authority across clans and councils. Andean communities utilised reciprocity systems and collective labour arrangements to align leadership with community welfare. Many African societies relied on councils of elders, communal accountability traditions, reciprocal obligations and social responsibility. Polynesian societies often linked leadership legitimacy to communal expectations and spiritual obligations. Although these systems varied significantly, many shared a common emphasis on collective accountability and the prevention of excessive concentration of power. Of course, most of us are dealing with larger scale nations that run on inhumane and unfair competition at varying degrees.

Reducing authoritarian recurrence therefore requires more than simply defeating individual movements. It requires addressing the underlying conditions that make such movements attractive. Strong civic education can improve historical awareness and critical thinking. Independent media can counter propaganda and provide citizens with reliable information. Transparent institutions can reduce corruption and strengthen public trust. Citizen assemblies and grassroots participation can create meaningful channels for public involvement. Cross-community cooperation can undermine regimes by fostering relationships across social divisions (something humans have been doing since archaic times), especially when shared goals outweigh differences. Or maybe that’s just wishful thinking and we need to BOYCOTT EVERYTHING and practice alternative systems away from a state designed to fail us.

The recurrence of authoritarian and fascist movements with cult-like behaviour emerges from the interaction of manufactured crises, psychological vulnerabilities, cultural narratives, institutional weaknesses, and political opportunism. Some citizens recognise these patterns while others do not, and even those who recognise them may support such movements under conditions of fear, insecurity, a sense of belonging, or perceived necessity. Preventing recurrence requires not only stronger institutions but also stronger civic cultures capable of resisting simplistic solutions, confronting historical realities (save this to your watchlist - Supremacy Without Borders: https://youtube.com/playlist?list=PLRWIs-fzi82b49xGbweq5_MpkAHYO8UTC&si=JJH_FPmD8J16wGpE), and maintaining democratic accountability during periods of uncertainty. Or indeed separatist enclaves… the choice is ours.

“Banality of evil” (Hannah Arendt) + dog whistles = manufactured consent → eugenics + ecocide domestically and globally.

So what can we do when inflammation is the norm and allergic reactions are cyclical? I believe that the ultimate first place to start is with our egos, which shouldn’t be our enemy nor our master, but our healthy companion: https://egoexplorer.my.canva.site/

Citizen assemblies and civic engagement directories:

https://www.opengovpartnership.org/

https://www.forus-international.org/

https://www.civicus.org/

https://www.transparency.org/

https://glocan.org/

https://www.democracy-international.org/

https://globalassembly.org/

Share

Before the transatlantic slave trade took hold, African kingdoms such as the Mali Empire, the Kingdom of Benin, and the Kingdom of Kongo actively resisted European encroachment. In regions like Upper Guinea, entire villages constructed fortifications and warning systems to avoid capture. European traders often bypassed these regions due to the fierce resistance from local communities.

However, not all kingdoms could or did resist. Some African rulers - sometimes under pressure, sometimes in pursuit of political leverage - entered into negotiations with Europeans, exchanging prisoners of war and rival captives for goods like guns, alcohol, and textiles. These trade decisions would later reshape the political and moral landscape of West and Central Africa.

Firearms introduced by Europeans tipped the balance of power, especially in kingdoms like the Kingdom of Dahomey and the Ashanti Empire, who used them to dominate neighbouring groups. European traders and colonisers deployed divide-and-rule tactics, exploiting ethnic tensions, and supporting local junior leaders frustrated by traditional power structures. The resulting internal wars and slave raids destabilised entire regions, leading to state collapse, population loss, and increased vulnerability to foreign control.

II. The Mechanics and Escalation of Enslavement (1500s–1800s)

By the time the transatlantic slave trade expanded, European racial ideology had begun to evolve, redefining Africans, including their rulers, as inherently inferior and exploitable. Even African elites who had once been trading partners were betrayed, captured, or bypassed through force and manipulation.

Enslavement didn’t begin with race-based chattel slavery, but it transformed into it. While some African societies previously enslaved prisoners from war, debt, or crime, the European model radically dehumanised African people - stripping them of all rights, agency, and kinship identity. Chattel slavery became economically foundational, not just supplemental as in other regions and periods.

Resistance was ever-present. Aboard ships, enslaved Africans organised rebellions, hunger strikes, and escape attempts. On land, kingdoms like Benin and Dahomey sometimes negotiated trade terms or blocked raids. Others, like Kongo and Ashanti, engaged in military resistance or outright refused to sell captives. I found out that I’m a descendant of an ethnic group that strategically helped other groups to escape captivity which is pretty punk rock. However, as violence and destabilisation increased, sustained resistance became more difficult.

The economic incentives of the trade and the escalation of ideologies solidified racial hierarchies by the 18th century. These hierarchies justified the exploitation of even African elites and laid the foundation for colonial domination.

European colonial expansion was often planned to address local social issues like poverty, overpopulation, unemployment, religious persecution, political unrest, and criminal overflow, serving as secondary motives to power. Execution varied widely, often leading to chaotic consequences; diseases, ethnic conflict, environmental degradation (including the extinctions of flora and fauna species), cultural erasure, and long-term political instability. Most of these were deliberate for maximum control, only remedying problems pragmatically, like offering public services that were self-serving.

The concept of race was created and racial hierarchies were institutionalised into colonial law, education, and religion. Africans were cast as suited only for manual labour, particularly in gold, diamond, and copper mines. Pseudo-scientific racial theories were used to justify harsh conditions and forced labour systems. These ideas laid the groundwork for later eugenic thinking. And they also persist today in extremely unethical mining operations headed by both Western and Eastern powers, like in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, where the formation of our technology begins ( https://www.endthesilentgenocide.com/ ).

These systems were more rigid than earlier slavery structures. Unlike most indentured servants or traditional captives, black chattel slaves had no legal protections and restricted pathways to freedom. Slavery in the Americas became the most brutal and economically entrenched form in world history, despite religious doctrine discouraging torture and encouraging freedom if done so.

III. Global Dimensions and Resistance

• In India, members of an African originated ethnic group known as the Siddis served in royal courts and armies.

• Arab(ised) slave traders trafficked locals, Africans and Europeans. Ironically, European colonialists leveraged the prospect of freed white slaves to encourage their imperial intervention and expansion into North Africa.

• Dubai and other Trucial States (now UAE) relied heavily on enslaved East African labour and seasonal migrants for construction and dangerous pearl diving that formed the backbone of the region’s economy.

• Indigenous people from the Americas, Africa, and Asia were trafficked into European port cities like Lisbon, Seville, Venice, and Marseille, performing domestic work, court entertainment, and craft labour. Even when baptised and assimilated, they were treated as property.

• In Oceania, few black slaves were brought over by European colonisers. In New Guinea and the Pacific Islands, slavery took the form of “blackbirding”, the coercive recruitment of Melanesians and Aboriginal peoples for forced labour in Australia and Fiji.

• Brutal slavery was widespread in the Americas including the Caribbean islands. Contracted indentured servants from Europe and Asia were also brought to these places under harsh conditions during and after chattel slavery.

• African, Atlantic and Indian Ocean islands such as St Helena and Réunion, served as transhipment hubs or plantation sites, for both the Transatlantic and Trans-Saharan Trade networks for commodities, including people. European islands like Malta and Sicily were for domestic slavery or served as ports.

• Although not slavery, black whalers and sailors were also in the Arctic and North Pacific during the 19th century, some as escaped slaves, others as freedmen seeking work.

Resistance took many forms; Maroon communities, piracy, sabotage, and everyday survival. The “motley crew” - an international anti-imperial group of sailors, dockworkers, enslaved fugitives, freedmen, and religious dissenters such as the Quakers - fought oppression through mutual aid, shared knowledge, and cross-racial solidarity. A few black people whose families had never been enslaved yet still lived under discriminatory laws were also a part of the operations. In port cities like Charleston, Kingston, and Liverpool (UK), these working-class rebels formed underground networks, resisted impressment, helped fugitives escape, and spread abolitionist ideas. Multi-ethnic women played vital roles; running informal economies, forming kinships, gathering intelligence, and preserving oral traditions that kept resistance alive. Furthermore, “white-presenting” individuals could gain access to influential circles and share first hand accounts that challenged racial assumptions.

IV. Abolition and the Aftermath

While abolition began in the 1800s, it was driven more by economic shifts, revolts, freedmen lobbying in British parliament, and autobiographies of the former enslaved, than by morality alone. Abolition may have occurred during various dates throughout the geopolitically Western world, yet full criminalisation of it was poorly enforced. Surprisingly, Switzerland still doesn’t have a distinct law that defines and criminalises slavery as a standalone offense. And for several countries worldwide, slavery is still legal within prisons. For example, US corporate prisons, due to a legal loophole.

Alternatives to slavery like cheap paid labour and cooperative farming, had prior been tried and tested, but proved slower and less profitable. Colonisation, driven by a mindset of extraction and ownership, rejected Indigenous knowledge. The economy was built on impulsivity, private property, export, and lucrative speed, not sustainability or community.

In the Americas, after 300 years of rebellion, chattel slavery became less financially sustainable and industrial changes now made forced labour the less profitable option. This was because it produced lower quality work than technologically advancing paid specialist jobs given to white people. Despite abolition, slavery continued through slave patrol inspired convict leasing, Black Codes, sharecropping, and the so-called “war on drugs”. Unlike ancient systems where freed people could rejoin society, formerly enslaved African Americans faced Jim Crow laws, economic dispossession, pogroms, and lynchings. Meanwhile, Indigenous Americans were subjected to exploitative “assimilation” programs which involved forced labour, lasting well into the 20th century. Also, South America’s colour-coded caste system still has an effect on today.

Within Africa, some African leaders resisted abolition because the trade had become interwoven with local politics and economies. Others supported abolition for religious, moral, or strategic reasons. Liberia is where some freed people sailed to declare independence. But between 1887 and 1910, the French administration in West African countries established “freedom villages” to house formerly enslaved people following abolition. While these villages were intended to offer refuge and autonomy, they often served as tools of control, where residents were subjected to forced labour, dependency and surveillance. Forced labour also continued in regions like St Helena island under the guise of a “Liberated African Establishment” and apprenticeships. Apartheid and apartheid-like systems plagued certain African countries throughout the 20th century.

We Westerners used public tax money to compensate enslavers and their descendants, not the enslaved. While a small few individuals and institutions have offered genuine reparatory steps, others have done performative gestures or made excuses.

Yes, “everyone had slaves,” ( see table ) but the type of slavery the stolen African people endured was the most unnecessarily sadistic, racially fuelled gang operation homo sapiens have ever done to one another. Some countries directly played a colonial hand, others benefitted indirectly. Contrarianism does not move us towards mass healing and repair. It’s strange that we’d rather contribute to global conflicts over amendments and preventative measures. “The world isn’t all rainbows and unicorns” is an insane predatory excuse for ongoing traumatic disparities.

Reparatory justice should come from elites and institutions with slavery ties like banks, universities, and churches. Some colonies (including post-independent) may be grateful for colonial infrastructure but it often came at a price of plunder, set up for the international elites to do genocidal business, which often left regions economically and psychologically deprived. To expect full gratitude is both paternalistic and patronising. No one is asking for guilt, just dignified righteousness. It’s an insult to humanity that this is even a debate, although I believe this topic is being leveraged during our current political hysteria.

• Jamaica received development aid (although locals still have restricted access to their own beaches).

• Barbados withheld land payment to a UK Member of Parliament with slavery ties.

• France demanded “indemnity” from Haiti post-independence, now Haiti seeks repayment.

• Some US cities have launched local reparations programs.

• Germany paid reparations to Namibia for colonial-era genocide.

• The Church of England aims to fund global communities.

• Glasgow University and Harvard have acknowledged slavery ties and pledged funds for reparative projects.

• Certain Indigenous communities around the world are involved in making sure any business operations done in their area is done ethically and in a way that they can benefit from.

And there are many international instances of rehabilitation, rebuilding, and reconciliation, especially in instances of war, torture, trafficking, and economic disenfranchisement. For example, Japanese-American survivors of the World War II internment camps received compensation. So it is possible despite what biased so-called scholars may say – especially ones from a prestigious institution that only recently stopped using an enslaved person’s skull as a ceremonial chalice… donated by a eugenicist… Regardless, like with “peacekeeping” missions, development aid is often under Western terms that can ignore local needs. This goes against the promise of no repetition principle of redress ( https://redress.org/ ). And foreign aid is unlikely to get to the root of the problem, which is chronic exploitation and lack of transitional justice. Aid can become what’s called odious debt, when loans or financial assistance given to governments, often under exploitative terms or for corrupt purposes, burden the population with repayment obligations for funds that never benefited the people.

V. Last Words

Due to Operation Legacy, we’ll never know the full scope of what took place during that era. But what we do know is that its foundation haunts our systems, psyches, and relationships. Not only is it found in our hubris but in the gamified suffering of all people. And most of all, it yells at us through the inherited physiological conditions of the descendants of those who built it, as well as the intensified natural disasters that ravage tropical regions. Keep your eyes on all mines and ports for we are the new Motley Crew.

I know today’s global elites want us focusing on a “culture war” instead of their despicable behaviour but this is a good time to connect the dots – this documentary series is about how supremacy has weaved itself through time and place to get to where we are now. Supremacy is a tool for greed and greed pacifies the existential fears of the ego. We have overextended our survival instincts and to what end?

Consensual collaboration brings relational bonds and legitimate abundance whereas coercive control brings contempt and illegitimate blood money. Now take a deep breath because I couldn’t split this next sentence up properly (a tutor once called my essays “too wordy”). The way global Indigenous peoples did conflict resolution and restorative justice should be studied, because using consumer, labour and attitude power may move mountains but let’s face it - a lot of us don’t have the courage to do the inner work needed to change the whole landscape back to what worked both in pre-colonial times, and based on what we’ve learnt about our current needs. We don’t get to have much time on planet Earth so let’s make sure the next generations experience a world of more dignity over major absurdity.

If you’re apprehensive about what all this means for your identity, explore your archaic to ancient ancestral roots, ask yourself what makes you a decent human being beyond that, and volunteer in your local community.

Search for your regional organisations advocating against modern day slavery to stay aware of and help reduce the ongoing abuse of human lives.

And so my message to our overlords is;

RECOGNITION

DEEP REPAIR

DEBT RELIEF

COMPENSATION

REPATRIATION

TRANSITIONAL JUSTICE

And a message to us peasants;

HERITAGE OVER HATE

VOLUNTEER OVER VIOLENCE

COURAGE OVER COWARDICE

DISENTRANCEMENT OVER DISENFRANCHISEMENT

I hope all this has made sense, I edited it passed my bedtime…

Sources (Ctrl+F to search keyword):

• “White Presenting” and what it means by Lex Enrico Santi

• ‘From Africa’ to ‘Of India’: Siddis Through Colonial Period by Mohammad Nasir Ahmad

• “I Held Her Skull in That Ceremony”: Oxford’s Shocking Use of Enslaved Woman’s Remains Sparks Global Outrage by Hina Dinoo

• ‘13th Amendment loophole fuels forced labour in US prisons, violating human rights and benefiting the government and companies’ by Walk Free

• 5 Black Heroes of the Abolition Movement in Britain by Historic England

• Abolition of Slavery by Country by Vivid Maps

• African Collaborators and Their Quest for Power in Colonial Kenya: Senior Chief Waruhiu wa Kung’u’s Rise from Obscurity to Prominence, 1890-1922 by Evanson N. Wamagatta

• African Participation and Resistance to the Trade by LDHI

• African Passages, Lowcountry Adaptations by LDHI

• After Caribbean Slavery – Indentured Labour by Richard Shrubb

• Apartheid by Wikipedia contributors

• Arab slave trade by Wikipedia contributors

• Beyond Compensation: Reparatory Justice as a Structural Economic Imperative for Africa by Cristina Duarte

• Black History in the Last Frontier: Black Whalers in the North Pacific and Arctic by National Park Service

• Blackbirding by Wikipedia contributors

• Chattel Slavery Vs Indentured Servitude: Shades Of Horror by History Tools

• Chattel Slavery vs. Transatlantic Slave Trade – What’s the Difference? By thisvsthat

• Christian slaves, Muslim masters: white slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast, and Italy, 1500-1800 by Robert C. Davis

• Christianity and Abolition in Africa by Paul Kollman

• Colonial Legacy in Governance Structures and Social Hierarchies in Africa by Rowland-George Omeni

• Colonialism and Empire by British Online Archives

• Colonialism and genocide by Wikipedia contributors

• Cries From Nature: How Colonialism Exploited the Natural World by Bella Gao

• Cultural assimilation of Native Americans by Wikipedia contributors

• Did American Police Originate from Slave Patrols? by Timothy Hsiao

• Divide and rule or the rule of the divided? The effect of national and ethnic institutions on African under-development by Elias Papaioannou and Stelios Michalopoulos

• Does the Bible Condone Slavery? A Biblical Perspective on Servitude, Justice, and Freedom by Discovering Theology

• Enslavement in Upper Guinea during the Era of the Transatlantic Slave Trade by Sean Kelley

• European expansion since 1763 by Harry Magdoff et al

• Experimental Alternatives to Slavery, 1791–1833 by Seymour Drescher

• Firearms and Warfare on the Gold and Slave Coasts from the Sixteenth to the Nineteenth Centuries by R. A. Kea

• Forced evictions at industrial cobalt and copper mines in the DRC by Amnesty

• Freedom villages in the upper Senegal valley, 1887–1910: A reassessment by Andrew F. Clark

• From Chattel Slaves to Wage Slaves: The Dynamics of Labour Bargaining in the Americas by Mary Turner

• From Indentured Servitude to Racial Slavery by PBS

• History of St Helena’s Liberated African Burial Grounds by St Helena National Trust

• How Colonialists Used Phrenology, A pseudoscience, To Justify Racism & Slavery by Madras Courier

• Indian Ocean slave trade by Wikipedia contributors

• More and more people are seeking protection - including men for the first time by blueNews

• Natural Resource Mining in Africa by National Geographic

• On the economic importance of the slave plantation complex to the British economy during the eighteenth century: a value-added approach

• Outlaws of the Atlantic : sailors, pirates, and motley crews in the Age of Sail by Marcus Rediker

• Pan-African History: Political Figures from Africa and the Diaspora Since 1787 by Dr. Hakim Adi and Sylvia Tamale

• Pope Nicholas V: The Pope Who Granted Portugal the Right to Enslave Africans in 1452 by Talk Africana

• Postcolonial Legacy: Caste and Identity, Examining the Enduring Impact on Latin American Societies by Sarah Lee

• Published online by Cambridge University Press: 31 October 2018 Klas Rönnbäck

• Racist ideas by Discovering Bristol

• Redress Map by African American Redress Network

• Respecting The Rights of Indigenous Peoples and Local Communities by Accountability Framework Initiative

• Reversing Invisibility: Enslaved Black Africans in Early Modern Spain by Diana Berruezo-Sánchez

• Sevillian Society in the Sixteenth Century: Slaves and Freedmen by Ruth Pike

• Shipboard Revolts, African Authority, and the Atlantic Slave Trade by David Richardson

• Sicily and the Two Seas: The Cross Currents of Race and Slavery in Early Modern Palermo by Lori De Lucia

• Slave Compensation Act 1837 by Wikipedia contributors

• Slave trade by Charles E. Nowell et al

• Slavery in the Americas by The Colonial Williamsburg Foundation

• Slavery in the British and French Caribbean by Wikipedia contributors

• Slavery in the Trucial States by Wikipedia contributors

• Something New out of Africa: States Made Slaves, Slaves Made States by J. C. Sharman

• The Convict Leasing System: Slavery in its Worst Aspects by Ellen Terrell

• The Difference Between African and European Forms of Slavery by Afriklens

• The history of the idea of race by Audrey Smedley

• The Many-Headed Hydra: Sailors, Slaves, Commoners, and the Hidden History of the Revolutionary Atlantic by Peter Linebaugh

• The National Monuments of Sierra Leone: A Brief Guide by D. Cummings

• The Philosophy of Colonialism: Civilization, Christianity, and Commerce by Emory University ScholarBlogs

• Three Decades of Transitional Justice Practice in Africa: Reflections on Lessons Learnt Towards an African Transformative Justice by Annah Moyo-Kupeta

• Timeline of abolition of slavery and serfdom by Wikipedia contributors

• Timeline of the Transatlantic Slave Trade and Abolition by Historic England

• Uncovering Africa’s Royal Past: The Kingdoms You Weren’t Taught About by Esther Aluko

• Western Africa - The Abolition of Slavery by T .C. McCaskie et al

• What’s in the rule of law? by Kanika Sharma

• White-Minority Governments in Africa: History and Major Facts by World History Edu